The Ritual of Offering to the Earth Goddess and the Origin of Human Sacrifice in the Achaemenid Period
/ Assistant Professor, Department of History, Faculty of Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran / t.hosseini@alzahra.ac.irچکیده و کلیدواژه فارسی (Persian)
- دارمستتر، جمیز (1342). وندیداد. ترجمة موسی جوان. تهران: ابنسینا.
- حسینی، سیدتوفیق (1403). خاستگاه هندواروپایی آموزة رواقی آتشسوزی سرانجام. معرفت ادیان، 15(4)، 105ـ120.
- کهنسال، علیرضا و راستین، امیر (1395). تطبیق فرشتگان بر مجردات در فلسفة اسلامی. معرفت فلسفی، 14(1)، 33ـ56.
- طیبحسینی، سیدمحمود (1395). پژوهشى در معناى شیطان در قرآن کریم بر اساس فرهنگ عرب عصر نزول. معرفت، 25(3)، 57ـ70.
- گاهان (1394). بهگزارش ابراهیم پورداوود. بهتصحیح فرید مرادی. تهران: نگاه.
- مولایی، چنگیز (1392). آبانیشت (سرود اوستایی در ستایش اردویسور آناهیتا). تهران: مرکز بزرگ دایرةالمعارف اسلامی.
- نیبرگ، هنریک ساموئل (1383). دینهای ایران باستان. ترجمة نجمالدین سیفآبادی. کرمان: دانشگاه شهید باهنر کرمان.
- یسنا (1394). بهگزارش ابراهیم پورداوود. بهتصحیح فرید مرادی. تهران: نگاه.
- یشتها (1394). بهگزارش ابراهیم پورداوود. بهتصحیح فرید مرادی. تهران: نگاه.
- Aeschylus, (2010). The Complete Aeschylus. Volume I. Peter Burian & Alan Shapiro. OUP Premium.
- Ammianus Marcellinus, (2016). The Complete Works of Ammianus Marcellinus. USA: Delphi Classics.
- Ara, Mitra., (2008). Eschatology in the Indo-Iranian Traditions. New York: Peter Lang.
- Athravaveda (1917). Vol. 2, Griffith, R. T. H., Benares: E. J. Lazarus & Co.
- Athenaeus (2017). Delphi Complete Works of Athenaeus. USA: Delphi Classics.
- Bailey, W. H. (1967). “Saka SSANDRAMATA”. In: Wiessner Gernot. Festschrift für Wilhelm Eilers. Berlin: O. Harrassowitz.
- Bakker, H. T. (1987). ” Human Sacrifice (Purusamedha), Construction Sacrifice and the Origin of the Idea of the ‹Man of the Homestead› “. (Vastupurusa) In: Jan Bremmer. The Strange World of Human Sacrifice. Amsterdam: Peeters Publishers.
- Bartholomae, Christian (1905). Die Gāθā’s und heiligen Gebete des altiranischen Volkes. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
- Benveniste, Emile (1929). The Persian religion according to the chief Greek texts. Paris: University of Paris. Ratanbai Katrak Lectures.
- Bidez, Joseph & Cumont, Franz (1938). Les mages hellénisés. Zoroastre, Ostanes et Hystaspe d’après la tradition grecque. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
- Bivar, A. D. H. (1971). “Mithra and Mesopotamia”. In: Hinnelles, J. R. Mithraic studies; proceedings of International Congress of Mithraic Studies II. London: Manchester University.
- Boyce, M. (1975). history of Zoroastrianism;The early period. Vol.I. Leiden-Köln: Brill.
- Buck, Carl Darling (1988) A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in Principal Indo-European Languages. USA: The University of Chicago Press.
- Burkert, W. (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. USA: Wiley, Blackwell.
- Caesar, Gaius Julius (2013). Delphi Complete Works of Julius Caesar. W. A. MacDevitt. USA: Delphi Classics.
- Chadwick. H. M. (1899). The Cult of Othin. London: C. J. Clay & sons.
- Colebrooke, H. T. (1977). Essays on History, Literature and Religions of Ancient India. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications.
- Collins, Brian (2014). The Head Beneath the Altar. USA: Michigan State University Press.
- Colpe, C. (1983). “Devolopment of Religious Thought” In: Yarshater (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran;The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods. Vol. III. Sec. 2. London: Cambridge Uni Press.
- Ctesias (2010). Persian History. Jan P. Stronk. Dusseldorf: Wellem Verlag.
- Dādestān ī. Dēnīg (1998). Mahmoud Jaafari Dehaghi. Paris: Etude Iranians.
- Dahlquist, Allan (1962). Megasthenes and Indian religion. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.
- Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1993). The Lost Beliefs of Northern Europe. London: Routledge.
- Diodorus Siculus (1939). The Library of History. Vol. 3. C. H. Oldfather. Cambridge: Harvard university Press.
- Edwards, E. (1919) “Human Sacrifice (Iranian)”. In: James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. 6. New York: C. Scribner›s Sons; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
- Eliade, Mircea (1958). Patterns in Comparative Religion. London: Sheed & Ward
- Eliade, Mircea (1978). A History of Religious Ideas. Vol.1. Willard R. Trask. USA: The University of Chicago Press.
- Euripides (1916). Hecuba. Vol 1. Arthur S. D. London: William Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library.
- Farnell, L. R. (1921). “Sacrifice (Greek)” in James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. 11. New York: C. Scribner›s Sons.
- Fraser J. G. (1911) The Golden Bough: The Scapegoat. Vol. 6. London: Macmillan and Co.
- Gnoli, G. (1980). Zoroaster’s time and homeland. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale.
- Gonda, J. (1960). Die Religionen Indiens. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer verlag.
- Grimm, Jacob (1875). Deutsche Mythologie. Bd.1. Elard Hugo Meyer. Berlin: Dümmler Verlagbuchhanlung.
- Grummond, N. T. (2016). “Etruscan Human Sacrifice: The Case of Tarquinia”. In: Murray Carrie Ann. Diversity of Sacrifice. NewYork: NewYork University Press.
- Hanson, Victor Davis (2002). Hoplites;The Classical Greek Battle Experience. London: Taylor and Francis.
- Henninger, J. (2005). “Sacrifice”. In: Lindsay Jones. Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12. USA: Macmillan.
- Herodotus (1975). Histories. trans by A. D. Godley. London: Harvard University press, Loeb Classical Library.
- Historia Augusta (1991). David Magie. Volume II. Elagabalus. Severus Alexander. London: Harvard University press, Loeb Classical Library.
- Homer (1978). Iliad. Volume 2. A. T. Murray. W. F. Wyatt, Books 13-24. London: Loeb Classical Library.
- Hubschmann, H. (1897). Armenische Grammatik. Theil. I, Leipzig: Druck und Verlag Breitkopf & Härtel.
- Hughes, D. D. (1991). Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge.
- James, E. O. (1921). “Sacrifice (Introductory and Primitive)”. In: James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. 11. New York: C. Scribner›s Sons.
- Jordaan, R. & Wessing, R. (1999). “Construction Sacrifice”. In: Jan E. M. Houben, Karel R. Van Kooij. Violence Denied, Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History. Leiden: Brill.
- Kretschmer, Paul (1890). “Semele und Dionysos”. In: Carl Robert. Aus der Anomia. Berlin: Carl Robert (17-158).
- Leslie, J. (2005). “Sati”. In: Lindsay Jones. Encyclopedia of Religion. Second Edition. Vol I2. USA: Macmillan Reference and Thomson Gale.
- Lucan (2018). Pharsalia. Jane Wilson Joyce. London: Cornell University Press.
- Macculloch, John Arnott (1912) “Earth; Earth Gods”. In: James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol 5. New York: C. Scribner›s Sons; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
- Mallory J., Adams D. Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
- Mogk, E. (1919). “Human Sacrifice (Teutonic)”. In: James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol 6. New York: C. Scribner›s Sons; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
- Moulton, J. H. (1926). Early Zoroastrianism. London: Constable & Company Ltd.
- Narten, j. (1982). Die Ameša Speņtas im Avesta. Weisbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- Nerangestan (2003). Kotwal, Firoze & Philip Kreyenbroek. Paris: Association Pour L’Avancement de Etude Iranienns.
- Nyberg, Henrik S. (1966). Die Religionen des alten Iran. [2.ed.]. Osnabruck: Otto Zeller.
- Offit, Paul (2015). Bad Faith; When Religious Belief Undermines Modern Medicine. USA: Basic Books.
- Oldenberg, Hermann (1894). Die Religion des Veda. Berlin: Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz.
- Otto, Walter F. (1965). Dionysus; Myth and Cult. Robert B. Palmer. (trans.). USA: Indiana University Press.
- Parpola, Asko (1983). “The Pre-Vedic Indian Background of Sartua Rituals”. In: Frits Staal. The Vedic Ritual of Fire Altar. Vol 2. USA: Berkeley Calif.
- Pausanias (1965). Description of Greek. Vol 3. London: William Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library.
- Pirart, E. (1996). “Le sacrifice humain reflexions sur la philosophie religieuse Indo-Iranienne ancienne”. Journal Asiatique, 284(1), 1-35.
- Pliny, the Elder (1967). Natural History. Vol 1. M. Rackham. Cambridge: Harvard university Press.
- Plutarch (1928). Moralia. Frank Cole Babbitt Vol. II. 2. London: Loeb Classical Library.
- Plutarch (1959). Lives. Bernadotte Perrin (trans.) London: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library.
- Plutarch (1970). De Iside et Osiride. Griffiths J. Gwyn [ed.]. London: University of Wales Press.
- Pokorny, J. (1951). Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bd. I, München: Francke Verlag.
- Procopius (1924). History of the Wars; Gothic War. Books 6. 16-7. 35. H. B. Dewing.Vol. 4. London: Loeb Classical Library.
- Rigveda (2014). Stephanie W. Jamison, Joel P. Brereton. 3-Volume Set. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Sauvé, James L. (1970). “The Divine Victim: Aspects of Human Sacrifice in Viking Scandinavia and Vedic India”. In: Puhvel, Jaan (ed.). Myth and Law Among the Indo-Europeans. USA: University of California.
- Schlingloff, Dieter (1969). “Menschenopfer in Kausambi”. Indo-Iranian Journal. Vol. 11. 175-189.
- Schrader, O. (1910). “Aryan Religion”. In: James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol 2. New York: C. Scribner›s Sons; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
- Schwartz, M. (1985). “The Religion of Achaemenian Iran”. In: Gershevitch (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran II, The Median and Achaemenian Periods. London: Cambridge Uni Press.
- Strabo (2014). The Geography. Duane W. Roller. London: Cambridge University Press.
- Tacitus (1942). Complete Works. New York: The Modern Library.
- The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg (2001). David Warner. London: Manchester University Press.
- Vichitakiha-i Zatsparam (1965). Anklesaria, Behramgore Tehmurasp. Bombay: The Trustees of Parsi.
- von Wesendonk, O. G. (1929). ” Aremati; als arische Erdgottheit”. AFRW. Bd. 72. Berlin: Archiv fr Religionswissenschaft.
- Weber, Albrecht (1868). Indische Streifen. Bd. 1, Berlin: Nicolaische Verlagbuchhanlung.
- Xenophon (1918). Cyropaedia. Translated by Carleton L. Bownson. Cambridge: Harvard University press.
- YajurVeda (1899). Griffith, Ralph Thomas Hotchkin. Banares; E. J. Lazarus & Co.
- References
- Darmesteter, James (1963). Vendidad. Trans. Musa Javan. Tehran: Ibn Sina.
- Hosseini, Seyyed Tawfiq (2024). “The Indo-European Origin of the Stoic Doctrine of the Final Conflagration.” Ma’rifat-e Adyan, 15(4), 105–120.
- Kohansal, Alireza, and Rastin, Amir (2016). “The Application of Angels to Immaterial Beings in Islamic Philosophy.” Ma’rifat-e Falsafī, 14(1), 33–56.
- Tayeb Hosseini, Seyyed Mahmoud (2016). “A Study of the Meaning of Satan in the Holy Qur’an Based on the Arab Culture of the Age of Revelation.” Ma’rifat, 25(3), 57–70.
- Gāthās (2015). Reported by Ebrahim Pourdavoud. Ed. Farid Moradi. Tehran: Negah.
- Mollaei, Changiz (2013). Ābān Yasht (Avestan Hymn in Praise of Ardvisur Anahita). Tehran: Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia.
- Nyberg, Henrik Samuel (2004). Religions of Ancient Iran. Trans. Najm al-Din Seif-Abadi. Kerman: Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman.
- Yasna (2015). Reported by Ebrahim Pourdavoud. Ed. Farid Moradi. Tehran: Negah.
- Yashts (2015). Reported by Ebrahim Pourdavoud. Ed. Farid Moradi. Tehran: Negah.
Copyright © 2026 The Author(s). This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
